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3. Classification, typology & evolution [27-40]

Previous methods of classifying (organising) ancient musical instruments are
evaluated, and their strengths and weaknesses exposed: from the artificial principles
proposed by Francis Galpin (1932; 1937) and Otto Andersson (1930; 1937) to the
hierarchical, essentially natural, quasi-biological systems of Curt Sachs and Erich
von Hornbostel (1914), recently revisited by Laurence Picken (1975). The very
antiquity of ancient instruments makes them quite different from modern folk
instruments, requiring new approaches. An interpretive error is identified in some
natural schemes which have attempted to embody supposed evolutionary kinships
based mainly on modern ethnographical observation. A particular error is discerned
in the eliciting of chronological value, and 'progress', from typological series. A
further weakness of some systems is their retention of functional criteria - for
instance, whether an instrument was plucked or played with a bow - since in the
archaeology such information is often absent. Instead a system is proposed based
purely on observable morphological traits.

A theoretical framework is set out which will provide the structure of the thesis: that
musical instruments, like other human artefacts, serve sets of behaviours, occupying
in effect behavioural niches comparable with those of biological ecosystems. The
forms - designs - of musical instruments are therefore products not only of the
traditions which connect them but of competing pressures, both aesthetic and
practical, in their working environments. If this is true then amongst evidenced design
changes we ought to be able to discern changing patterns of musical usage
reflected.

The chapter concludes that progress in the evolution of instruments does not mean
progress in the sense of 'ever greater sophistication' or of 'striving for improvement':
as in biological evolution, it is simply about adaptation to meet changing requirements.

4. Non-operative elements in design [41-62]

Analysis of design characteristics begins with an illustrated review of elements
which seem to relate, directly, neither to practicalities of manufacture and structure
nor to acoustic and ergonomic requirements of performance. Although from a
musical perspective this may be only the first stage in a process of elimination, it also
reveals things which are of intrinsic value since, according to the adopted paradigm,
even non-operative elements should be present for a reason. Decorative motifs are
the most obvious of these. Both animal-based and plant-based ornamentation are
considered, from the vine-scroll patterns and wolf- and dragon-head terminals of
medieval harps to the paired birds and birds' heads associated with early lyres. Their
symbolic role is explored, in terms both of associated concepts (such as aristocratic
or divine association) and of inherent properties (such as structural strength,
lightness and loudness). Paired birds, associated in the Old Norse poem Grímnismál
with Huginn and Muninn, the two bird-messengers of the poet-god Odinn, also occur
in the iconography of King David as Psalmist. It is proposed that some may reflect
attribution with magical properties, including animacy, enabling reinterpretation of the
personal name 'Scilling' in the Old English poem Widsith - previously assumed to be
the poet's human accompanist - as his instrument.

Aspects of fashion, including conservative and antiquarian tastes, are also
detected. Number symbolism is considered in relation to stringing. But the aspect
which is of particular evolutionary interest is the survival of vestiges and
skeuomorphs of once-functional components. Most obvious of these is
decorative reference to natural resonators (such as tortoise shells) but more
subtle forms include residual curves and angles. These reach their minima in the
plain, elegant outlines of the lyres of the 6th to 8th centuries.

5. Construction technology and design [63-99]

A premise of the thesis is that, contrary to previous studies, musical properties
cannot be elicited from examination of the surviving evidence without first
considering practical aspects of their manufacture and structure. The nature of
manufacture therefore forms the focus of the first of three substantive
treatments, combining technical analysis with experimental study (Chapters 5-7).

Lyres, lutes and harps are considered in turn, each according to three main
categories of work: shaping (carving, hollowing and planing), joinery (jointing
and box assembly) and fitting-out (manufacture and attachment of tuning pegs,
bridges and strings). Here the hard detail afforded by archaeological finds
comes into its own. No identifiably musical tools or workshops survive, but
examination of instrument surfaces and forms enables experimental exploration
of methods and equipment which seem to be indicated. The technical challenges
presented by surviving specimens are discussed and illustrated.

All extant early medieval finds possess wooden resonators (sound-boxes and
sound-boards) and all have been gouged or adzed out of solid wood, without
use of fire. None shows awareness of composite (e.g. carvel or box)
techniques, or use of glue. Nevertheless a very high specification is repeatedly
achieved. Timber is carefully selected, both for species and for grain, and
delicate, thin-walled structures obtained. So substantial an investment of time,
skill and material must mean that the instruments enjoyed high cultural status. It is
shared by the large, all-wooden lyres of ancient Greek art, identified by
philologists with the kithara of the texts, and by the large, post-medieval harps
of especially Irish and Scottish tradition.

The chapter traces the transformation from natural resonators to all-wooden
forms and the genesis of late composites. Parallels are drawn with other crafts:
trough- and bowl-making, cabinet-making, vehicle-building and ship-building. An
association of early medieval lyres with carpentry, advocated by David Wilson
(1968), is queried. Player-manufacture, advocated by Werner Bachmann for the
instruments shown in later medieval art, is similarly rejected for early medieval
finds, and some of the later. Instead some specialist involvement is favoured.
The nearest modern equivalent seems to be cabinetmaking; but metalworking
and jewellery are also much in evidence. The decline in build-quality in later
medieval lyre finds is considered to correspond with transfer of fine lyre-making
skills to harp-making.

cambridge music-archaeological research
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